有趣的经济学前沿—银行越大越好吗(一)

发布于 2021-09-12 13:27

有趣的经济学前沿

银行越大越好吗(一)

Are Larger Banks Better? (I)

Scroll down for the English version.

银行对于实体经济的发展非常重要,它是资源的中转站,是风险的分散器和控制器。发达的银行业可以更高效率地为企业和个人服务,为他们融通和跨期配置资金,这样可以大幅度提高企业的投资效率(有一点展开讨论,请见尾注一)。关于银行和实体经济之间的关系有很多话题,我们今天要讨论的是,对于企业和实体经济发展而言,银行是不是越大越好呢?举个不太恰当的例子,好比我们想知道,对于中国企业和经济发展而言,银行规模都像四大行(中、农、工、建)那种巨无霸更好呢,还是规模小一点,比如像很多城市银行那样更好呢?

为什么我们关心银行的规模大小?这是因为银行的业务比较特殊,它们的主要工作表面上是融通资金,是储蓄者和贷款者之间的资金流转渠道,但本质上它们的工作是处理信息不对称以及分散风险。所谓信息不对称就是银行和贷款企业之间信息不对称,银行把资金借给企业之后无法监管企业具体如何使用资金。有时候企业签贷款合同的时候说借钱搞研发,结果拿到钱以后就投资房地产了。很多时候银行是无法监管或控制企业如何使用资金的。为了尽量避免企业发生这种道德风险,确保资金风险可控,银行往往会严格审查贷款企业的资质和信用记录,而且放款的前提条件是贷款企业必须把一些资产作为抵押,这样一旦企业违约银行可以挽回一些损失。此外,银行给企业的放款规模和贷款利率也会根据企业情况做相应的调整。而所谓分散风险,其实这正是银行最重要的作用之一。储蓄者把钱存到银行,获得固定的存款利率。而银行把这些钱贷给风险和收益各不相同的企业或者投资项目,有些项目风险高回报大,有些项目风险低回报小。银行作为资金的池子,它通过分散投资的方式,从概率的角度把资金的风险分散了。每年银行都可能有一两个投资项目贷款资金收不回来了,但这基本不会影响这个银行的整体资金回报率,也不会影响储蓄者能够从银行获得的收益。也就是说不管银行各类贷款分别承担了多大的风险,资金的原始提供者之一——储蓄者承担的风险是不变的,绝大部分情况下储蓄者是没有任何风险的,除非银行出现危机。银行的这种风险分散功能是个人储蓄者做不到的,这也正是银行存在的重要价值之一。当然,不同银行对风险的偏好是不一样的,有些银行激进一些,把资金更多地配置到高风险项目,有的银行稳健一些,把资金更多地配置到低风险项目。而银行的风险偏好,以及它们对贷款的审批和把控,就可能和银行的规模大小有关。

我们可以想象一下,假设一个经济体它的银行都是一些小银行,这些银行因为规模很小,所以市场份额都不大,彼此之间的竞争也比较激烈,那么这个经济体可能会出现什么问题。从理论上来讲,银行彼此之间的竞争有两个层面,第一个层面是竞争储蓄来源,第二个层面是竞争贷款企业和投资项目。我们先看银行对储蓄来源的竞争。如果一个经济体中的银行都是一些小银行,大家都没什么名气,那么储蓄者在选择把钱存到哪个银行的时候,基本上就只看哪个银行给的存款利率更高了。举个不太恰当的例子,大家可以想象一下如果咱们国家没有中、农、工、建等等这些习惯上被人们认为更安全的超大型银行,而全都是类似于鄞州银行、绍兴银行、台州银行、绵阳商行这种规模比较小的银行,当你考虑在哪个银行开户存钱的时候,是不是觉得这些银行都差不太多,就看哪个银行利率高了?事实上,小银行面对激烈的竞争,为了获得储蓄资金来源,往往有动机主动提高存款利率来吸引储蓄者。我们国家长期执行利率管制,其中很重要的一条就是存款利率上限,规定了商业银行或者农村信用社这些金融机构可以给储蓄者提供的利率不得超过某个上限,其目的就是为了防止银行之间恶意竞争,盲目提高存款利率,最后导致银行出现大面积风险甚至破产。在上个世纪90年代,我国开启了利率市场化改革,逐步试着放开利率管制,并且建立了银行间市场,帮助银行通过其他渠道获取资金。但即便如此,期间还是发生过农村信用社恶意竞争,盲目抬高存款利率,最后出现大面积破产的事件。我国利率市场化进展到现在,很多利率管制(比如贷款利率下限,后续展开)都放开了,但存款利率上限还是不敢轻易放开。不是说银行之间有竞争不好,而是银行之间恶意竞争会带来很大的风险。就像当年共享单车之间的竞争,为了夺取客户,彼此疯狂压价烧钱,最后一地鸡毛,倒闭了一大批,造成了很大的资源浪费。共享单车倒还好,最后的损失主要是一大堆破烂的自行车。可如果银行也这样恶意竞争,疯狂抬高存款利率,增加了自己的资金成本而最后倒闭了,那可能所有相关的储蓄者、贷款企业,乃至整个金融系统都会受到严重的影响,出现金融危机。利率市场化的目标之一是放开这些存款利率上限的管制,让银行根据市场情况更高效地制定利率,让资金的回报率也更高一些。可是怎样才能避免银行之间这种恶意竞争储蓄的现象呢?要么需要银行的“自律性”足够高,不会恶意竞争储蓄(关于银行自律性更多的讨论,见尾注二);要么还有一种可以想象的情况,那就是这个经济中只有少数几家大型银行,老百姓没别的选择,只能把钱存到这些地方,银行彼此之间不需要竞争储蓄。从这个角度讲,银行规模大一些好,因为它们恶意竞争储蓄的动机可能会小一点。

除了竞争储蓄来源,银行还会竞争贷款需求。如果一个经济体中都是一些小银行,那么企业考虑去哪家银行贷款的时候,显然也会选择成本最小的那家银行。这里的成本有很多种,比如审批严格程度,比如可贷款规模,还比如最重要的一点:贷款利率。由于小银行之间竞争激烈,在面对企业贷款需求的时候,它们缺乏议价能力。为了争夺客户,小银行可能主动压低贷款利率,放松贷款标准,而这也可能导致银行出现风险。反之,如果这个经济体中就那么一两个超大型银行,企业想贷款没别的选择,只能在这两个地方申请贷款。那么不好意思,银行现在是爷,就这个利率就这个贷款额度,企业你爱要不要。当然,我们说从银行风险的角度讲,大银行没有竞争客户的必要性,对银行是好的。但是从对企业的角度讲则未必绝对如此。小银行竞争激烈,虽然可能增加金融风险,但企业贷款成本也更低了。而大银行因为拥有绝对话语权,导致企业贷款成本也更高。从这个角度看,对于整体经济发展而言,小银行好还是大银行好,这不一定。当然这里需要指出的是,随着金融市场的逐渐发展,银行对资金使用方式逐渐拓展,对资金使用效率也逐步提高,银行不再像过去那样除了给企业贷款找不到其他赚钱的方式。而且随着经济的发展,企业贷款需求逐渐增加,银行基本上也不再需要靠主动压价去吸引贷款需求。这也是我们国家利率市场化进程中,取消贷款利率下限,让银行根据市场情况自己决定贷款利率的一个基本背景。

前面我们从竞争储蓄来源和竞争贷款需求这两个角度聊了聊大银行好还是小银行好。其实银行的大小还会带来其他方面的不同,比如风险控制。很多关于银行的理论研究都认为,小银行面对风险更加激进,它们需要冒险,来获得更高收益和利润,这样它们才能更好地生存。大银行由于在市场上有一定的“垄断”地位,它们的利润来源丰富,因此不太需要过于激进地冒风险,比如投资高风险项目或者把资金贷给更高风险的企业。然而,也有一些银行理论认为其实不然。银行愿不愿意冒险,除了基于利润的考虑,更主要的还涉及一个道德风险问题。大银行对于一个经济体而言举足轻重,它可不敢轻易出什么问题。那么多储蓄者的钱存在这家大银行,这家大银行也投资了那么多资产,万一它倒闭了,可能连带反应出现系统性金融危机,导致整个经济体崩溃。正因为如此,政策制定者,特别是中央银行基本上明里暗里都会成为这些大银行的最后兜底者。这就是有名的学术上所谓的“大而不能倒”(too big to fail)现象。银行太大了所以不能倒闭,一旦它出现问题,中央银行会成为“最终贷款人”(lender of last resort)给这个银行提供帮助,给他钞票帮它度过难关。大银行如果倒了,中央银行不救,那整个经济遭受的损失可能因为金融系统的放大而更大。而如果破产的是小银行呢?虽然也会有一些损失,只要不传染给其他银行,不会影响整个金融系统的运行,中央银行一般是不会救的。然而,正是由于中央银行对大银行和小银行的这种差别对待,导致了二者面对风险的时候态度不同。大银行想着,反正出了问题有中央银行兜底,那冒点险就冒点险吧。这就是所谓的大银行道德风险问题。由于有中央银行这种不成文的隐性担保,大银行反而更愿意冒险,导致整个金融系统风险增加。可见,到底大银行更愿意冒险还是小银行更愿意冒险,从理论上讲我们并没有一致的结论。

此外,大银行可能因为管理层级变多,层层审批导致处理信息的效率变低。大银行也可能因为数据库更大,对企业更熟悉,处理信息的效率变高。企业在贷款的时候可能选择更熟悉的,有合作先例的银行,不管这个银行是大是小。总之,很多因素都会影响银行的效率,也会影响银行对实体经济的作用。

简单小结一下:我们今天从理论上探讨了到底大银行更好还是小银行更好,结论是不知道。大银行有大银行的好处,小银行有小银行的优势,在理论上二者难分伯仲。那么现实中的情况究竟如何?有没有相关的实证证据来客观比较一下大银行和小银行?我们又应该如何找实证证据?关于这些问题,请听下回分解。

尾注一:现代企业发展基本上离不开资本市场的帮助,企业通过在资本市场的融资来更高效率地完成自己的投资项目。在有些国家,例如美国和英国,企业最主要的融资方式是直接融资,例如IPO(俗称上市)或者直接发行企业债券。在有些国家,例如中国、日本、德国等,企业最主要的融资方式是简介融资,即通过银行这个金融中介来贷款。

 

尾注二:关于银行自律性这个话题也很深。主张市场导向的学者倾向于认为银行在市场竞争的环境下,为了防止破产风险,本应该有自律性避免恶意竞争。这些学者还指出银行之所以敢恶意竞争,可能和政府担保有关,即中央银行会拯救出问题的商业银行。这种政府兜底的政策导致了商业银行出现道德风险,恶意竞争或者过度冒险。主张政府管制的学者认为,市场可能会失灵,恶意竞争在各行各业都可能发生。个体银行在市场中的最优策略选择未必是全社会的最优策略选择。因此,为了防止银行恶意竞争,政府监管仍然必不可少。

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Interesting Frontiers in Economics

Are Larger Banks Better? (I)

The banking system is important for the development of the real economy. It facilitates resource allocation and diversifies risks. It serves enterprises and individuals by channelling funds and greatly improves their investment efficiency (refer to Endnote I at the bottom for more discussion). There are many topics about the relationship between banks and the real economy. We are going to discuss whether having larger banks is more beneficial to enterprises and the real economy than having smaller banks…

Slide up for more details

Why should we care about the size of banks? Well, this is because the business of banks is quite special. Their function is the channelling of funds between depositors and borrowers. However, their real value is dealing with information asymmetry and risk diversification. There is information asymmetry between banks and borrowers because banks can't monitor how borrowers use money once it is lent out. For instance, some enterprises claim that they want to borrow funds for R&D, but they actually invest these funds into real estate or the financial markets. To minimize the risk arising from the moral hazards of borrowers, banks normally, on the one hand, impose strict conditions on the borrowers' qualifications and credibility. On the other hand, it also requires collateral for the loan. The amount lent and interest rate set are adjusted according to the overall quality of the borrower. Risk diversification is also another important role of banks. Depositors put their money in the banks and earn through fixed interest rates. Banks then lend the money to various enterprises or investment projects that have different risks. By choosing different borrowers, the risk of default is diversified. There might be a few defaults each year, but they hardly affect the bank's overall return on capital. Although banks face projects with different risks, depositors generally face no risk, and normally they can get their deposit plus the committed interest back. However, individuals usually cannot fully diversify the risk of investment because they don't have enough funds and don't have access to so many projects. Of course, banks may differ in their inclination for risk. Some are more aggressive and allocate more funds to projects with higher risks, while others are more risk-averse and prefer projects with lower risks. The appetite for risk and the lending standard of banks surely can affect firms and the real economy, and it may vary among banks of different sizes.

Suppose that an economy is full of small banks. Each bank has a small market share and therefore faces high competition pressure. Theoretically, banks compete with each other in two ways: they compete for funds (depositors) and projects (borrowers). We begin with competition for depositors. When all banks are small and have no established reputation, depositors will choose banks that offer the highest interest rates. For example, if there was no such thing as the "Big Four" – BOC, ABC, ICBC and CCB – China's four biggest banks, but plenty of small banks like Yinzhou Bank, Shaoxing Bank, Taizhou Bank and Mianyang Bank, which one will you choose when considering where to deposit your money? These small banks may seem not as secure as the giant banks, and they are basically quite similar, so you will probably choose the one that offers you the highest interest rate. As a matter of fact, when facing fierce competition, small banks have incentives to raise interest rates to attract depositors. China has been regulating the savings interest rate for a long time, and one important purpose is to prevent such competition for deposits by setting a ceiling on these rates. In the 1990s, China initiated a reform of interest rate marketization that gradually removed such regulations. It also established an inter-bank market to help banks get funds through other channels. Even so, malignant competition occurred between rural credit cooperatives who increased their saving interest rates too competitively, which resulted in numerous bankruptcies of these financial institutions. Till now, the interest rate marketization reform has made great progress by abandoning various regulations and price controls (such as the interest rate floor on loans, which will be discussed below). However, the interest rate ceiling on savings has yet to be removed. It is not that competition between banks is bad, but that malignant competition can generate systemic risks. Remember the competition among bike-sharing companies, in which so many brands were lowering their prices to attract consumers? The majority of them finally became bankrupt, and a lot of resources were wasted. Such competition among these bike-sharing companies resulted in a great hoard of scrap metal. But if the banks competed in the same way and became bankrupt, the loss could severely affect all the relevant participants in the economy: depositors, firms, and even the whole financial system, eventually resulting in a financial crisis. Interest rate marketization allows banks to decide interest rates more effectively according to market conditions, thereby improving the efficiency of resource allocation. Nevertheless, how can we avoid malignant competition for depositors among banks? One way is to rely on the self-discipline of banks (refer to Endnote II for more discussion about bank self-discipline). Another way could be to establish a few giant banks in the economy. This leaves the public few options regarding where to deposit their money and thereby reduces competition among banks and their incentives to raise the saving interest rate. From this perspective, banks of larger size are better because they are less motivated to compete with depositors.

Banks also compete for borrowers. If all the banks in an economy were small, borrowers would choose banks with the lowest costs. The costs here comprise lending standards, loan quantity and the loan interest rate. Due to fierce competition, small banks lack bargaining power on loan interest rates. They may also be motivated to lower the interest rate and relax the lending standard to attract potential borrowers. This could also jeopardize the health of banks. In contrast, if only a few giant banks in the economy and borrowers do not have too many alternatives, these big banks truly call all the shots. Hence, borrowers have to accept the interest rates and other conditions set by these banks. Of course, from the perspective of banks, less competition is beneficial. From the perspective of borrowers, however, this may not be the case. When banks are small, borrowing costs are smaller, although financial risks might be higher. Therefore, it is difficult to judge how the size of banks affects economic development as a whole. It is noteworthy that with the development of financial markets, banks have found more ways to earn profits rather than simply lending to firms. The demand for loans has also increased significantly. Thus banks don't have to lower the interest rate of loans to attract potential borrowers anymore. This is why the Chinese government removed the lending interest rate floor.

We have discussed how the size of banks can affect the economy from the perspectives of competition for depositors and borrowers. In fact, the size of a bank can also bring about differences in other aspects, such as risk control. Many theoretical papers argue that small banks are more aggressive in the face of risk because they need higher profits to survive, while big banks can earn profits from their monopoly, so they don't have to take excessive risk. However, there is another theory called "too big to fail". Big banks are systemically important, so they cannot fail because otherwise, there would be a financial crisis. Whenever big banks suffer difficulties, the central bank will become their lender of last resort. Knowing this, these big banks are emboldened to take excessive risks. This is the moral hazard problem of big banks. Small banks do not have such a "guarantee" of a lender of last resort to have more self-discipline. Apparently, all these theories make some sense, but this also makes a definitive conclusion more ambiguous. We don't know whether big banks or small banks are more aggressive towards risk.

In addition, when banks become bigger, they may be less efficient at processing information due to an increased managerial hierarchy. However, they may also be more efficient because they have a larger database of information. Borrowers also usually choose a bank that they already have a relationship. In sum, many factors affect the efficiency of banks and their effects on the real economy.

In conclusion, we have discussed whether big or small banks are better, and our current understanding is that "we don't know" the answer. Theoretically, they both have advantages and disadvantages, and therefore we may need empirical evidence for a definitive answer. So we will continue with this topic next week.

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Endnote I: Modern enterprises rely heavily on capital markets, which improve their investment efficiency by allocating funds and resources. In the US, the UK, and some other countries, the dominating external financing instrument is direct financing, such as IPOs or issuing corporate bonds. In countries like China, Japan, and Germany, the dominant external financing instrument is indirect financing, loans from banks.

 

Endnote II: The self-discipline of banks is also a complicated topic. According to scholars who advocate market orientation, banks will have self-discipline when facing competition because they want to prevent the risk of bankruptcy. They argue that the banks' inclination for malignant competition might be related to government bailout policies like the central bank’s lender of last resort guarantee. Such policies cause moral hazard problems for banks and lead to excessive risk-taking. By contrast, scholars who advocate government regulation believe in the idea of market failure. They propose that government intervention is necessary to prevent excessive risk-taking and malignant competition among banks.

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有趣的经济学前沿 - 如何设计竞争的奖励机制

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文字:张家瑞  | 翻译: 马张奕 | 图片:网络

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